African cuisine

African cuisine is an integral part of the continent's diverse cultures reflecting its long and complex history. The evolution of African cuisine is closely entwined with the lives of the native people, influenced by their religious practices, climate and local agriculture. Early African societies were largely composed of hunter-gatherers who relied on foraging for wild fruits, vegetables, nuts, and hunting animals for sustenance. As agriculture developed across the continent, there was a gradual shift to a more settled lifestyle with the cultivation of crops such as millet, sorghum, and later maize. Agriculture also brought about a change in diet, leading to the development of a variety of culinary traditions which vary by religion. Many African traditional dishes are based on plant- and seed-based diets.

Each region in Africa has developed its own distinctive culinary practices, shaped by local ingredients, colonial history and trade. In West Africa, for example, dishes often feature rice, millet, and beans complemented by spicy stews made with fish, meat, and leafy greens. The use of chili peppers, peanuts and palm oil is also widespread in this region. Central African cuisine on the other hand, tends to be simpler and relies heavily on starchy foods such as cassava and plantains, often served with sauces made with peanuts or vegetables. In East Africa, particularly in countries like Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, the cuisine reflects a combination of native agricultural practices and influences from trade routes with India and the Middle East. Staples such as maize, beans, and rice are commonly consumed along with dishes like Ugali ( a maize-based porridge) and sukuma wiki ( a dish made from collard greens). The coastal areas of East Africa, particularly along the Swahili coast, feature seafood and curries seasoned with spices such as cardamom and cloves, a direct influence of Indian and Arab traders. Southern African cuisine also displays a blend of indigenous ingredients and colonial influences. Dishes such as pap ( a maize-based porridge), biltong ( a type of sausage) are popular in countries like South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia. The cuisine is characterized by the use of game meat, maize, and beans, as well as European influences introduced during colonial times. Traditionally, the various cuisines of Africa use a combination of plant-and seed-based ingredients, without having food imported. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features an abundance of root tuber products.

Africa represents a rich history of adaptation, trade, and resourcefulness. while regional differences are pronounced, the use of local ingredients and traditional cooking techniques remains central to the continent's culinary identity. Central Africa, East Africa, North Africa, Southern Africa and West Africa each have distinctive dishes, preparation techniques, and consumption modes.

History

The roots of native African cuisine goes back to thousands of years before the Bronze Age in Northeast Africa, when early civilizations began cultivating grains such as barley and wheat. Part of North Africa is in the Fertile Crescent where settled agriculture was practiced by the Ancient Egyptians in this area. Animals such as donkeys and sheep were also domesticated, starting the spread of agriculture to other parts of Africa, notably West Africa. Although most tribes still lived a simple hunter-gather diet.

Arab explorers- Leo Africanus and Ibn Battuta- provided accounts of African food which they encountered on their travels through sub-Saharan Africa. Most European travelers stayed close to coastal areas until the 19th century. Many of their diaries also recorded details on foods and crops. Many staples were introduced later when Africa was colonized by the Europeans. Foods that are now important parts of African cuisine such as maize and potatoes were not common until the 19th century.

The influence of African food on Caribbean, Brazilian, American Lowcountry cuisine, and Cajun cuisine from Louisiana is seen in rice dishes and green stews like the Afro-Caribbean efo, duckanoo and callaloo. The vegetable okra, introduced from Africa, is used in classic Louisiana gumbos, and American rice growing in the Carolina. Lowcountry was influenced by West African techniques of rice cultivation and many slaves hailed from the rice-growing regions of West Africa. Lowcountry cuisine is still known for its distinctive rice dishes.

Food and Drink in Ancient Egypt

Food and drink in ancient Egypt relied on barley and wheat, the primary crops cultivated along the Nile. The Egyptian diet was based on bread, beer, and vegetables. Meat was expensive and only rarely eaten. The majority of people ate fairly basic meals, while the upper classes consumed more exotic and varied dishes.

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Bread and Porridge

Breads and porridges were the base of the Egyptian diet. They were both typically made with barley or emmer wheat, the two staple crops of Egypt. Grain was ground by hand with stone querns to produce flour. Despite efforts to prevent it, grit and sand often found their way into flour while it was being processed and transported. Many mummies have teeth worn down from years of eating gritty bread.

Egyptian cuisine allowed for the preparation of bread in all possible shapes: flat, conical, spherical, sometimes molded into shapes of objects or animals. Extremely varied ingredients could be added to the dough for sweetening or aroma, such as lupine seeds, coriander, a decoction of figs, and poppy or ryegrass seeds.

The most common style of bread was a dense flatbread made with flour, salt, and water. The dough was typically formed into round or triangular shapes, but it could also be shaped into human or animal figures. This could be baked on a stone inside an oven, on the floor of the oven itself, or even buried in hot embers.

Because bread was so important, many different varieties were invented. Some types of bread included fats, oils, eggs, or dairy in addition to the basic ingredients of flour and water. Leavening was used to create fluffier loaves. Special types of ovens and pans were used to bake bread of different shapes and consistencies. Bread was sometimes topped with seeds, seasonings, or nuts before baking.

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Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables were a significant component of the Egyptian diet. Lentils, beans, and peas added both fiber and protein to porridges and soups. Garden vegetables like onions, lettuce, cucumbers, garlic, and radishes were staples of Egyptian meals. Aquatic plants like sedges, including papyrus reeds, were also commonly harvested as food. Egyptians enjoyed both eating vegetables raw and roasting or boiling them.

Since the Nile has a gentle current, carries down a great quantity of all kinds of earth, and gathers in stagnant pools in low places, marshes are formed which abound in every kind of plant. Tubers of every flavour grew there, along with fruits and vegetables which grow on stalks, supplying enough abundance to render the poor and the sick among the inhabitants self-sustaining.

Fruit was used as an ingredient or eaten on its own as a dessert. Figs, dates, grapes, melons, and berries were served as snacks and desserts. Olives and capers were also eaten, although they were not as central to the Egyptian diet as they were in Greek and Roman culture. Apples were probably introduced from Palestine, and the Egyptian word for apple, depeh, is a Semitic loanword.

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Beverages

Barley beer was the national beverage, often brewed at home. It was made by fermenting bread and crushed barley in a container of water. Once fermentation was complete, it was strained through a filter and jarred. The resulting product was thick and nutritious. It generally had a low alcohol content, suitable for all-day consumption.

Beer in ancient Egypt was categorized by colour, denoting its alcohol content. Red beer was lighter and less alcoholic, while black beer was stronger. Fruits and spices were sometimes added to the mix to improve its flavour. This method of beer production is still used in modern-day Egypt and Sudan.

Grapes did not grow as easily in Egypt as in other parts of the Mediterranean, so wine was only produced in small quantities for the wealthy elite. The earliest evidence for winemaking in Egypt dates back to 3200 BCE. Some wines were imported from Greece and Mesopotamia.

Egyptian wine was produced by fermenting grapes in clay jars perforated with small holes to allow fermentation gases to escape. The finished product was labeled with clay seals describing the wine's provenance, quality, and year. Wines were also sometimes made from dates, figs, pomegranates, or palm sap. A strong wine liquor called shedeh was produced as well, known for its red colour and high alcohol content.

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Poultry and Dairy

Dairy, eggs, and poultry were primary sources of protein besides legumes. Farmers raised cows, goats, and sheep for milk, butter, and cream. Goats and sheep were cheaper to raise than cattle, making them preferable to poorer farmers.

Cheesemaking was probably introduced during the Neolithic period and certainly existed by the Early Dynastic Period. Over time, the cheesemaking industry became more specialized, creating different types of hard and soft cheeses. The oldest discovered solid cheese sample was found in the tomb of Ptahmes, mayor of Memphis during the 19th Dynasty.

Birds, both wild and domesticated, were a major source of meat and eggs. Geese, cranes, and ducks were force-fed to fatten them. Pigeons and doves were considered delicacies and often used as food offerings. Egyptians also ate pelicans and ostriches, with ostrich eggs especially prized for their large size and flavor.

There is limited evidence for chickens in ancient Egypt. An ostracon from c. 1350 BCE depicts a red junglefowl, the ancestor of chickens. Chickens and their eggs were imported but did not become widespread until the Ptolemaic period.

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Meat and Seafood

Domesticated livestock included cows, oxen, goats, donkeys, sheep, antelope, and pigs. However, meat was rarely eaten due to the economic importance of livestock as draft animals and dairy producers. Meat consumption was reserved for feasts and sacrifices.

Ancient sources like Herodotus noted a religious taboo against pigs. Archaeological evidence suggests pork was consumed, though it was less popular and mainly eaten by the lower classes. The taboo may have been limited to priests or elites.

Wild game such as gazelles, antelopes, and hippopotamuses were hunted, providing meat for the wealthy. Game birds like ducks, geese, and quails were also abundant.

Freshwater fish such as carp, catfish, Nile salmon, and eels were caught in rivers and lakes. Coastal fish like grey mullet were also popular. Smoking and drying were common methods of preserving fish. The elephantfish, considered sacred, inspired the name of the city Per-Medjed (Oxyrhynchus).

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Sweets and Desserts

Egyptians consumed a variety of sweets, including cakes, pastries, and confections made with chopped fruits, nuts, and sweet syrups. Honey was the primary sweetener, although dates and carob were more common for everyday use due to honey's high cost.

The tiger nut, a type of sweet-tasting sedge root, was widely used in sweets. Tomb paintings depict the preparation of tiger nut cakes, possibly served with a syrup of dates and honey. The flour produced from tiger nuts had a texture similar to ground almonds.

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Cooking Methods

Ancient Egyptian recipes have not survived, but food preparation methods are known through archaeological remains and art. Simple methods like soups, stews, and casseroles were popular. Meat was usually braised or boiled, though sometimes roasted or fried. Small animals were often stuffed with spices and vegetables.

A variety of herbs and spices, such as dill, parsley, thyme, cumin, and mint, were cultivated and used to enhance dishes. Vegetable oils like sesame, linseed, and castor were used for cooking.

Kitchenware was made of stone, earthenware, and sometimes bronze or copper. Hearths were typically placed outside or on upper floors to minimize smoke inside homes.

Preservation techniques included drying, pickling, and salting. The Egyptians likely invented caviar by salting fish roe. Meat and foods were sometimes preserved through slow-cooking in fat and sealing them in jars.

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Meals

Meals were communal, eaten sitting on stools or the floor around low tables. Diners scooped food from shared bowls with hands or simple utensils. Upper-class households used metal or glass dining ware and often ate at higher tables and chairs.

Breakfast was usually a simple meal of bread, beer, and green onions. Workers could buy food near their workplaces. Heavier meals in the evening included beer, stewed vegetables, eggs, and bread.

Archaeological finds like the Saqqara tomb meal show that nobles enjoyed elaborate meals with porridge, roasted meats, casseroles, breads, cakes, and wine or beer.

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Changes in the Greco-Roman Period

Greek influence arrived after Alexander the Great’s conquest. Greeks brought new crops like pears, peaches, and walnuts, new types of kitchenware, and different culinary practices, including a greater acceptance of pork.

During the Ptolemaic period, vineyards expanded, especially around Lake Mareotis. Wine production increased significantly, although most Egyptian wine was considered low quality by Greek and Roman standards.

Alexandria developed a unique, cosmopolitan cuisine featuring seafood and Mediterranean influences. Writers like Athenaeus described dishes like roasted shark, stuffed cuttlefish, and breaded fish, reflecting the rich culinary blending during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Ancient Nubia/Kush

Ancient Nubia, also called the Kingdom of Kush, was a thriving civilization that flourished along the Nile River in what is now Sudan and southern Egypt. Known for its vibrant culture, extensive trade routes, and close ties with Egypt, Nubian daily life was deeply influenced by the region’s environment, social order, economy, and religious traditions.

Social Structure and Family Life

Nubian society was organized in a strict hierarchy, with the king or queen (such as the powerful Kandakes) at the top. Beneath the royal family were nobles, priests, scribes, merchants, artisans, farmers, and laborers. Extended families lived together in large households, and family connections were vital to social life. Women played important roles, not only managing homes but also sometimes serving as rulers and holding high religious and economic positions.

Housing and Architecture

Most ordinary Nubians lived in simple, flat-roofed houses built from mud bricks, ideal for the hot climate. Wealthier citizens and nobles resided in larger homes featuring courtyards. In the capitals, like Napata and Meroë, impressive palaces, temples, and pyramids showcased the kingdom’s advanced architectural skills.

Food and Diet

Nubian diets were closely tied to agriculture and the bounty of the Nile. Grains like sorghum and millet formed dietary staples, often made into bread or porridge. Fish, cattle, goats, and sheep provided additional protein, while fruits and vegetables such as dates, figs, and lentils enriched meals. Honey and dairy products were common, and beer served as a popular everyday beverage.

Clothing and Personal Adornment

Nubian clothing reflected the hot climate, favoring materials like linen and cotton. Men generally wore tunics or kilts, while women donned long dresses or skirts accented with decorative belts. Both genders adorned themselves with jewelry crafted from gold, ivory, and gemstones. The elite often wore elaborate headdresses and used makeup, while body decorations like tattoos and henna were widespread.

Work and Economy

Agriculture was the foundation of Nubian life, with crops flourishing along the Nile’s fertile banks. The kingdom’s wealth was boosted by its famous gold mines, making Nubia a major trading power linked to Egypt and other regions. Skilled artisans crafted pottery, textiles, and metal goods, while merchants traded items like ivory, ebony, incense, and exotic animals across extensive trade networks.

Religion and Spiritual Life

Kushite religion blended local spiritual beliefs with influences from Egyptian worship. Deities like Amun, Apedemak (a lion-headed god), and Isis were central figures. Temples and pyramids were constructed for worship and to honor deceased rulers, who were often interred in pyramids, reflecting their divine status and the Kushite belief in an afterlife.

Education and Writing

Education was mainly reserved for the elite. Scribes and priests were trained in Egyptian hieroglyphs and later the Meroitic script, the native writing system of Kush. Because the Meroitic script is only partially deciphered today, much of Nubia’s written history remains a mystery.

Recreation and Art

Music, dance, and sports were important parts of Nubian leisure life. Instruments such as drums, harps, and lyres were common, and festivities often featured lively drumming and dancing. Wrestling and hunting were favorite pastimes, serving both entertainment and practical purposes. Nubian art—ranging from pottery and metalwork to wall paintings—frequently portrayed gods, rulers, and daily life scenes.

Aksumite Empire

The Aksumite Empire (circa 100 CE – 940 CE) stood as one of the ancient world’s most influential and powerful civilizations, situated in what is today Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, and Yemen. At its peak, Aksum managed vast trade networks, operated a sophisticated government, and developed a distinctive culture blending African, Arabian, and Mediterranean traditions.

Everyday life in Aksum was shaped by its social hierarchy, thriving trade economy, agricultural productivity, religious diversity, and strong military presence. This overview explores the social classes, lifestyles, fashion, food, religion, military, and political organization of the Aksumite people.

Farmers and Herders

The majority of Aksumites were farmers, growing wheat, barley, teff, and sorghum. Livestock such as cattle, sheep, and camels were vital for sustenance, trade, and transportation.

Food and Dining: A Rich Culinary Tradition

Aksumite cuisine was rooted in local agriculture and enhanced by international trade.

Common Foods

Staples included grains like teff and barley, often prepared as flatbreads or porridge. Lentils, beans, and vegetables rounded out everyday meals. Honey and dates were popular sweeteners.

Meat and Dairy

Meat from goats, lambs, and cattle was mainly eaten during religious festivals. Dairy products like milk, butter, and cheese were widely consumed.

Dining Customs

Meals were typically communal, served on large plates and eaten by hand, accompanied by wooden or clay drinking vessels.

Religion and Spiritual Beliefs

The Aksumite Empire displayed a rich religious history, transitioning from polytheism to Christianity in the 4th century CE.

Ancient Carthage

Food and Diet

Carthaginian cuisine was rich and varied. Their diet included grains, bread, fish, meats like lamb and goat, fruits, and vegetables. Olive oil and wine were dietary staples. Meals were often flavored with a wide range of spices and sweetened with honey and nuts. The wealthy enjoyed more elaborate meals, while the lower classes had simpler fare

Overview

• Researchers from the University of Bristol and Goethe University analyzed pottery fragments over 3,500 years old from the Nok culture of Nigeria.
• Their study offers the earliest direct insights into plant-based food practices in ancient West Africa.
• Traditional West African meals feature a starchy base, vegetable sauces, and pulses.

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Starchy Staples

• Main staples included yams, cassava, sorghum, pearl millet, and maize.
• Pearl millet was commonly made into porridge in the Sahel and savannah regions.
• In the southern forest zone, pounded yam (fufu) was the primary starch-based food.

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Indigenous Vegetables

• Everyday meals incorporated a rich variety of vegetables such as:
  • Eggplant
  • Pumpkin
  • Watermelon
  • Okra (important for thickening soups and stews)
• A wide array of green leafy vegetables were eaten, including:
  • Amaranth leaves
  • Roselle leaves
  • Baobab leaves

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Archaeological Findings

• Chemical analysis of over 450 Nok pottery shards showed:
  • Diverse lipid profiles indicating the preparation of leafy plants, pulses, grasses, and possibly underground storage organs (USOs).
  • Evidence that ancient West African diets involved much more than just meat and starch.

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Key Foods Identified

• Plant remains found at Nok sites include:
  • Pearl millet
  • Cowpea
  • African peach
• Likely plants consumed based on analysis:
  • Jute mallow
  • African eggplant
  • Okra
  • Cowpea leaves
  • Bombax leaves

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Cooking Techniques

• Leaves were often cooked into mucilaginous ("slimy") sauces by adding potash (potassium carbonate).
• Such sauces complemented starchy dishes like pounded yam and cereal porridges.
• Dried leafy greens were stored to be used year-round, ensuring nutrition during food shortages.

Central Africa

Central Africa expands from the Tibesti Mountains in the north to the vast rainforest basin of the Congo River, the highlands of Kivu and the savannah of Katanga.

This region has received the culinary influence of the Swahilis (culture that evolved via the combination of Bantu, Yemeni, Omani and Indian cultures) during the trans-Saharan slave trade. Swahili culinary influences can be found in dishes such as mandazi, pilaf rice, kachumbari, sambusa, and kuku paka.

Central African cuisine has also been influenced by the Portuguese, by way of the Kongo and Ndongo Kingdoms. Salt fish was introduced following trade in the late 17th century, and the Kikongo term for salt fish, makayabu, comes from the Portuguese term bacalhau.

The Portuguese culinary influence is especially prominent in Angola, Sao Tomé and Equatorial Guinea. Central Africa has also been influenced by the cuisine of the East, West and Southern Africa regions because of their close proximity, e.g. babuté or bobotie is shared with the south, nyama choma with the east and sauce gombo with West Africa.

In Central Africa, a variety of crops are grown, including yams, cassava, bananas and plantains, sweet potatoes, and cocoyams. These crops have become staples in the diet of many people in Central Africa. Fufu-like starchy foods are usually made from fermented cassava roots, but they can also be made with plantain, corn maize and yam. Fufu is served buffet-style with grilled meat, fish, stews, greens and piment . A variety of local ingredients are used while preparing other dishes, like spinach stew cooked with tomato, peppers, chilies, onions, and peanut butter. Eastern central Africa is also one of the few regions in Africa that uses potatoes as one of its main bases, since potatoes grow easily in the region.

Cassava plants are also consumed as cooked greens. Groundnut (peanut) stew is also prepared, containing chicken, okra, ginger, and other spices. Beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, but game meat preparations containing crocodile, elephant, antelope and warthog meats are also served occasionally.

Countries

• Angolan cuisine
• Cameroonian cuisine
• Cuisine of the Central African Republic
• Chadian cuisine
• Congolese cuisine
• Cuisine of Equatorial Guinea
• Gabonese cuisine
• Cuisine of São Tomé and Príncipe

East Africa

Ugali, pictured here with a side dish of cabbage, though it is more typically eaten with collard greens (sukuma wiki)

Barbecued beef cubes and seafood in Forodhani Gardens, Zanzibar

Kitcha fit-fit, a mainstay in Ethiopian cuisine, is presented with a scoop of fresh yoghurt and topped with berbere (spice).

The cuisine of East Africa varies from area to area. In the inland savannah, the traditional cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive meaning that meat products are generally absent. Cattle, sheep, pigs and goats were regarded as a form of currency and a store of wealth. They are not generally consumed as food.

In some areas, traditional East Africans consume the milk and blood of cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other Africans are farmers who grow a variety of grains and vegetables. Maize (corn) is the basis of ugali', the local version of West and Central Africa's fufu. Ugali is a starch dish eaten with meats or stews. In Uganda, steamed green bananas called matoke provide the starch filler of many meals.

Around 1000 years ago, Omani and Yemeni merchants settled on the Swahili Coast. Middle Eastern influences are especially reflected in the Swahili cuisine of the coast—steamed or cooked rice with spices in Persian style; saffron, cloves, cinnamon and several other spices; and pomegranate juice.

Several centuries later, the British and the Indians came, and both brought with them foods such as Indian spiced vegetable curries, lentil soups, chapattis and a variety of pickles which have influenced various local dishes. Some common ingredients used in this region include oranges, lemons, limes, chilies, capsicum peppers, maize, tomatoes, and strawberries.

In the Horn of Africa, the main traditional dishes in Eritrean cuisine and Ethiopian cuisine are tsebhis (stews) served with injera (flatbread made from teff, wheat, or sorghum) and hilbet (paste made from legumes, mainly lentils and fava beans). Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine (especially in the northern half) are very similar, given the shared history of the two countries.

Eritrean and Ethiopian food habits vary regionally. In the highlands, injera is the staple diet and is eaten daily among the Tigrinya. Injera is made out of teff, wheat, barley, sorghum or corn, and resembles a spongy, slightly sour pancake. When eating, diners generally share food from a large tray placed in the center of a low dining table. Many injera are layered on this tray and topped with various spicy stews. Diners then break into the section of injera in front of them, tearing off pieces and dipping them into the stews.

In the lowlands, the main dish is akelet, a porridge-like dish made from wheat flour dough. A ladle is used to scoop out the top, which is filled with berbere and butter sauce and surrounded by milk or yoghurt. A small piece of dough is broken and then used to scoop up the sauce.

Typical Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisine: Injera (pancake-like bread) and several kinds of'"wat" (stew)

The best known Ethiopian/Eritrean cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrées, usually a wat, or thick stew, served atop injera, a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera to scoop up the entrées and side dishes.

Tihlo, prepared from roasted barley flour, is very popular in Amhara, Agame, and Awlaelo (Tigray). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Jewish and Ethiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people.

Xalwo, the Somali version of halva, is a festive dish in Somali cuisine.

Somali cuisine varies from region to region and consists of an exotic mixture of diverse culinary influences. It is the product of Somalia's rich tradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is served halal. There are therefore no pork dishes, alcohol is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated. Qaddo or lunch is often elaborate.

Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular being basmati, usually serve as the main dish. Spices like cumin, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon and sage are used to aromatize these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as late as 9 pm. During Ramadan, dinner is often served after Tarawih prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm.

Xalwo (halwo) or halva is a popular confection served during special occasions such as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar, cornstarch, cardamom powder, nutmeg powder, and ghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad.

Food and nutrition security in East Africa (Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan) is a significant issue. The region has been plagued by drought, conflict and economic instability since the 1990s. The current situation is characterized by low levels of food availability and high levels of malnutrition among young children. The solution proposed for this problem is to increase local food production. This would be achieved by increasing agricultural productivity by improving soil fertility and water management, which will help farmers grow more crops per year. This will also help reduce poverty in the region by providing more employment opportunities for local people.

North Africa

Main article: North African cuisine

In a study of food loss and waste in North Africa, researchers found that the region was wasting about 30% of its food, which is likely to increase as the population continues to grow. This waste occurs for a variety of reasons, including lack of refrigeration and storage facilities. To solve this issue, the people had to get creative with new dishes and ways of storing food. The more we looked, the more we found that people were using all parts of plants in some way—the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds. They also used every edible part of animals as well—from fat to bones for making broth or soup.

Fresh couscous with vegetables and chickpeas

North Africa lies along the Mediterranean Sea and encompasses within its fold several nations, including Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, and Egypt. The roots of North African cuisine can be traced back to the ancient empires of North Africa, particularly in Egypt, where many of the country's dishes and culinary traditions date back to African antiquity.

Over several centuries traders, travelers, invaders, migrants and immigrants all have influenced the cuisine of North Africa. The Phoenicians of the 1st century brought sausages, while the Carthaginians introduced wheat and its by-product, semolina. The Berbers adapted semolina into couscous, one of the main staple foods. Olives and olive oil were introduced before the arrival of the Romans.

From the 7th century onwards, the Arabs introduced a variety of spices, like saffron, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger and cloves, which contributed and influenced the culinary culture of North Africa. The Ottoman Turks brought sweet pastries and other bakery products, and from the New World, North Africa got potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and chili peppers.

Most of the North African countries have several similar dishes, sometimes almost the same dish with a different name (the Moroccan tangia and the Tunisian coucha are both essentially the same dish, a meat stew prepared in an urn and cooked overnight in a public oven), sometimes with a slight change in ingredients and cooking style. In addition, two completely different dishes may also share the same name (for example, a tajine dish is a slow-cooked stew in Morocco, whereas the Tunisian tajine is a baked omelette/quiche-like dish). There are noticeable differences between the cooking styles of different nations, from the sophisticated, full-bodied flavors of Moroccan palace cookery to the fiery dishes of Tunisian cuisine and the humbler, simpler cuisines of Egypt and Algeria.

Southern Africa

Traditional South African cuisine

Sadza, fish and vegies

The cooking of the Southern Africa region (not to be confused with the country of South Africa) is sometimes called "rainbow cuisine", as the food in this region is a blend of many cultures: indigenous African societies, European, and Asian. To understand indigenous African cuisine, it is important to understand the various native peoples of southern Africa. The indigenous Africans of Southern Africa were roughly divided into two groups and several subgroups.

The largest group consisted of the Bantu-speakers, whose descendants today may identify themselves by various subgroup names such as Ndebele (northern and southern), Shona, Venda, Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Tsonga. They arrived in the region around 2,000 years ago, bringing crop cultivation, animal husbandry, and iron toolmaking with them. Hence the Bantu-speakers grew grain crops extensively and raised cattle, sheep and goats. They also grew and continue to grow pumpkins, beans, and leafy greens as vegetables.

A smaller group were the primeval residents of the region, the Khoisan, who some archaeologists believe had lived in the region for at least 10,000 years. Many descendants of the Khoisan people have now been incorporated into the population of South Africa. The Khoisan originally were hunter-gatherers (who came to be known as "San" by the Bantu-speakers and as "bushmen" by Europeans). After the arrival of the Bantu-speakers, however, some Khoisan adopted the Bantu-speakers' raising of cattle but did not grow crops. The Khoisan who raised cattle called themselves "Khoi-Khoi" and came to be known by Europeans as "Hottentots."

Potjiekos is a traditional African stew (popularised by Afrikaners) made with meat and vegetables and cooked over coals in cast-iron pots.

People were, in other words, defined to some extent by the kinds of food they ate. The Bantu-speakers ate dishes of grain, meat, milk and vegetables, as well as fermented grain and fermented milk products. While the Khoi-Khoi ate meat and milk and the San hunted wild animals and gathered wild tubers and vegetables. In many ways, the daily food of native South African families can be traced to the indigenous foods that their native African ancestors ate. The Khoisan and Bantu traditionally ate roasted meat, and they also dried meat for later use.

The influence of their diet is reflected in the universal Southern African love of barbecue (generally called in South Africa by its Afrikaans name, a "braai") and biltong (dried preserved meat). The traditional beer was ubiquitous in the southern African diet, and the fermentation added additional nutrients to the diet. It was a traditional obligation for any family to be able to offer a visitor copious amounts of beer. Beer brewing was done by women, and the status of a housewife in pre-colonial southern Africa depended significantly on her skill at brewing delicious beer.

A carton and glass of mageu, a traditional non-alcoholic drink made from fermented mealie pap that is popular among many of the Nguni people

Milk was historically one of the most important components of the southern African diet. Cattle were considered a man's most important possession. In order to marry, a man had to compensate his prospective in-laws with a gift of cattle as a dowry for his bride. A married man was expected to provide a generous supply of milk to his wife and children, along with meat whenever he slaughtered cattle, sheep or goats. Because there was no refrigeration, milk was mostly soured into a kind of yogurt.

The young men of the family often took care of the cattle far away from the villages at "cattle posts," and they sent a steady stream of yogurt home on behalf of their fathers. Today, many South Africans of African origin enjoy drinking sour milk products that are sold in the supermarket, comparable to American buttermilk, yogurt, and sour cream. On weekends they will have a "braai", and the meal usually consists of "pap and vleis", which is maize porridge and grilled meat as has historically been done in the region.

The basic ingredients include seafood, meat products (including wild game), poultry, as well as grains, fresh fruits and vegetables. Fruits include apples, grapes, mangoes, bananas, papayas, avocado, oranges, peaches and apricots. Desserts may simply be fruit, but there are some more western-style puddings, such as malva pudding, reminiscent of sticky toffee pudding, which was inspired by both British cuisine and Dutch cuisine. Meat products include lamb, and game like venison, ostrich, and impala. The seafood includes crayfish, prawns, tuna, mussels, oysters, calamari, mackerel, and lobster. There are also several types of traditional and modern alcoholic beverages including many European-style beers.

Notable dishes

• Inyama yenhloko

Countries

• Botswana cuisine
• Cuisine of Eswatini
• Cuisine of Lesotho
• Namibian cuisine
• South African cuisine
• Zimbabwe cuisine
• Mozambican cuisine

West Africa

Main article: West African cuisine

West African maafe or groundnut stew, prepared by a Senegalese cook

A typical West African meal is made with starchy items and can contain meat, fish, as well as various spices and herbs. A wide array of staples are eaten across the region, including fufu, banku, kenkey (originating from Ghana), foutou, couscous, tô, and garri, which are served alongside soups and stews. Fufu is often made from starchy root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, or cassava, and also from cereal grains like millet, sorghum or plantains.

Jollof rice is a popular dish throughout West Africa.

The staple grain or starch varies between regions and ethnic groups, although corn has gained significant ground as it is cheap, swells to greater volumes and creates a beautiful white final product that is greatly desired. Banku and kenkey are maize dough staples, and garri is made from dried grated cassavas. Rice dishes are also widely eaten in the region, especially in the dry Sahel belt inland. Examples of these include the Senegalese dish thieboudienne also known as benachin or Jollof rice, a pan-West African rice dish similar to Arab kabsah.

Seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta, also called grains of paradise or melegueta pepper), a native West African plant, were used as a spice and even reached Europe, through North African middlemen, during the Middle Ages. Centuries before the influence of the Europeans, West Africans were trading with the Arab world and spices like cinnamon, cloves, and mint were not unknown, therefore becoming part of the local flavorings. Centuries later, the Portuguese, French and British influenced the regional cuisines, but only to a limited extent.

The local cuisine and recipes of West Africa continue to remain deeply entrenched in the local customs and traditions, with ingredients like native rice (Oryza glaberrima), rice, fonio, millet, sorghum, Bambara groundnuts and Hausa groundnuts, black-eyed peas, brown beans, and root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, sweet potatoes, and cassava. Cooking techniques include roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing. A range of sweets and savories are also prepared.

Klouikloui, rings of fried peanut butter as served in Benin

Cooking techniques of West Africa are changing. In the past West Africans ate much less meat and used native oils (palm oil on the coast and shea butter in Sahelian regions). Baobob leaf and numerous local greens were everyday staples during certain times of the year. Today the diet is much heavier in meats, salt, and fats. Many dishes combine fish and meat, including dried and fermented fish. Flaked and dried fish is often fried in oil, and sometimes cooked in sauce made with hot peppers, onions, tomatoes, various spices (such as soumbala), and water to prepare a highly flavored stew.

In some areas beef and mutton are preferred, and goat meat is the dominant red meat. Suya, a popular grilled spicy meat kebab flavored with peanuts and other spices, is sold by street vendors as a snack or evening meal and is typically made with beef or chicken. It is common to have a preponderance of seafood, which as earlier stated, is sometimes also mixed with other meat products. Guinea fowl and chicken eggs are also preferred.

With regard to beverages, water has a very strong ritual significance in many West African nations (particularly in dry areas) and water is often the first thing an African host will offer their guest. Palm wine is also a common beverage made from the fermented sap of various types of palm trees and is usually sold in sweet (less-fermented, retaining more of the sap's sugar) or sour (fermented longer, making it stronger and less sweet) varieties. Millet beer is another common beverage (Millet beer, also known as Bantu beer, is an alcoholic beverage made from malted millet.)

Countries

• Benin cuisine
• Burkinabé cuisine, Burkina Faso
• Ghanaian cuisine
• Cuisine of Guinea-Bissau
• Cuisine of Guinea
• Ivorian cuisine
• Liberian cuisine
• Malian cuisine
• Mauritanian cuisine
• Nigerian cuisine
• Cuisine of Niger
• Cuisine of Saint Helena
• Senegalese cuisine
• Cuisine of Sierra Leone
• Togolese cuisine

Notable Dishes

Bitter Leaf Soup

The exact origins of Bitter Leaf soup appear to be unknown thought it is known to have been prepared and eaten for hundreds of years. The dish traditionally consists of fish, meat (usually beef), bitter leaves, palm oil, and an array of spices and seasonings. Shellfish such as shrimp or crayfish are often used alongside fish in the preparation of Bitter Leaf Soup. Due to the bitterness of bitter leaf, the bitter leaf is washed thoroughly to diminish the bitterness before being cooked with the rest of the ingredients. It is widely consumed in West Africa, especially Nigeria where it is associated with the Igbo people and referred to as Ofe Onugbu.

The Bitter Leaf itself is known scientifically as Vernonia amygdalina and is native to Sub-Saharan Africa . The bitter taste comes from the alkaloids contained within the plant.

See also

• AfroFoodtv.com
• List of African dishes
• Cuisine of Seychelles
• Tiep
• Swallow

Further reading

• McCann, James C. (2009). Stirring the Pot: A History of African Cuisine. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780896802728. Retrieved 30 October 2016.